Introduction

In the process of designing a database, as described in my previous article, I decided to utilize the EXCLUDE constraint to maintain data integrity. While contemplating this, I realized that the EXCLUDE operator deserves a dedicated article.

Introduction to the EXCLUDE Operator

PostgreSQL is renowned for its numerous powerful features, and one of them is the EXCLUDE operator. This operator allows you to create advanced constraints on sets of values within table columns. In this article, I want to delve into the EXCLUDE operator, provide examples of its usage, and help you understand how to leverage it to build flexible and efficient databases.

Similar to the UNIQUE constraint in PostgreSQL, the EXCLUDE operator is used to define constraints on sets of values within table columns. However, unlike UNIQUE, it enables you to specify rules that determine which values cannot coexist within a particular column or set of columns. The EXCLUDE operator is often used with GiST or SP-GiST index types to ensure query efficiency, although it can also be used with a regular B-Tree index.

Examples of Usage

A common example of utilizing EXCLUDE is applying a constraint on overlapping time intervals, such as movie screenings in a cinema.

CREATE TABLE events (
    id serial primary key,
    event_time tstzrange,
    constraint no_screening_time_overlap exclude using gist (
        event_time WITH &&
    )
);

INSERT INTO events (event_time) VALUES ('["2023-01-01 19:00:00", "2023-01-01 20:45:00"]');

In the above example, we create a table named "events" and insert a record with a time interval. You can check the SQL on SQLize.online. Afterwards, you can try inserting another row with an interval that overlaps with an existing one in the table. Most likely, it will result in an error. If you manage to succeed, let me know in the comments!

Similar to UNIQUE, the EXCLUDE constraint can be applied to a group of columns. For instance, you can use the "event_start" and "event_end" columns of type timestamp and restrict time overlaps. Here's an example:

CREATE TABLE events (
    event_id serial primary key,
    event_name VARCHAR(100) NOT NULL,
    event_start TIMESTAMPTZ NOT NULL,
    event_end TIMESTAMPTZ NOT NULL,
    EXCLUDE USING GIST (event_start WITH &&, event_end WITH &&)
);

Constraints on numeric ranges can also be imposed using EXCLUDE. Take a look at this example:

CREATE TABLE ranges (
    range_id serial primary key,
    start_value INTEGER NOT NULL,
    end_value INTEGER NOT NULL,
    EXCLUDE USING GIST (int4range(start_value, end_value, '[]') WITH &&)
);

In this example, the "ranges" table is created, which contains numeric ranges. The EXCLUDE operator with a GiST index specifies that the numeric ranges in the "start_value" and "end_value" columns cannot overlap.

Another significant application is constraining the intersection of geometric figures:

CREATE TABLE polygons (
    polygon_id serial primary key,
    polygon_data geometry(Polygon) NOT NULL,
    EXCLUDE USING GIST (polygon_data WITH &&)
);

Here, the "polygons" table is created, which stores information about polygons. The EXCLUDE operator with a GiST index ensures that geometric objects in the "polygon_data" column cannot intersect or be contained within each other.

In all the above examples, we utilized the EXCLUDE constraint based on a GiST index. However, for completeness, let's provide an example using an R-Tree:

CREATE TABLE users (
    user_id serial primary key,
    email VARCHAR(255) NOT NULL,
    EXCLUDE USING btree (lower(email) WITH =)
);

In this example, we nearly replicated the functionality of the UNIQUE constraint with a slight modification. Our uniqueness is now case-insensitive.

Conclusion

The EXCLUDE operator in PostgreSQL offers the ability to create advanced constraints on sets of values within table columns. It allows you to define rules that restrict combinations of values that cannot coexist. This is particularly useful for ensuring data integrity and performing complex checks at the database level.

In this article, we explored several examples of using the EXCLUDE operator, including constraints on overlapping time intervals, prohibition of intersecting geometric objects, and constraints on non-overlapping numeric ranges. The EXCLUDE operator is a powerful tool that can be employed to build flexible and efficient databases in PostgreSQL.

In your projects, utilize the EXCLUDE operator to create sophisticated constraints and ensure data integrity at the database level. This will help you maintain the structure and reliability of your database while optimizing its usage.

If you found this article helpful, you can show your support to the author.