Objects, in Ruby, don’t “have” methods but, rather, find them by searching its class and that class’s superclass, and onward, up to the Object or even BasicObject class, or in a module that has been mixed into any of those classes.

Most of the time, you’ll use the dot operator “.” (There’s also send, __send__, and public_send alternatives) to “prompt” the object to go find a method (send messages to objects). In practice, the message being sent is the name of a method.

Demonstration of basic module inclusion and inheritance

Let’s write some basic classes, modules, and methods so we can easily visualize the logic and mechanics of method lookup and hopefully better understand how objects find methods.

module M
  def hello
    puts "Hello from module M"
  end
end

class C
  include M
end
class D < C; end

object = D.new
object.hello

# Hello from module M
# => nil

The search ends when the method being searched for is found, or with an error condition if it isn’t found. This error condition is triggered by the method_missing method.

The Kernel module provides an instance method called method_missing. This method is executed whenever an object receives a message that doesn’t match a method anywhere in the object’s method-lookup path.

How far does the method search go?

However many classes and modules it may cross along the way, the search for a method can always go as far up as BasicObject, which has a few instance methods. But to understand the common behavior of all Ruby objects, you have to look at Object or more precisely, you have to look at Kernel where most of Ruby’s fundamental methods are defined. And because Object mixes in Kernel, all instances of Object and all descendants of it have access to the instance methods in Kernel.

The illustration below show the method search path for the code example above all the way up the chain.

Overriding methods

Since the method search process passes through multiple classes and modules, an object can have multiple methods with the same name in its method-lookup path. Still, if the object’s method-lookup path includes two or more same-named methods, the first one encountered is executed.

module Interest
  def calculate_interest
    puts "We are in module Interest"
  end
end

class Account
  include Interest

  def calculate_interest
    puts "We are in class Account"
  end
end

account = Account.new
account.calculate_interest

# We are in class Account
# => nil

Also, a class could mix in two or more modules and more than one implements the same method being searched for. In that case, the most-recently mixed-in module is searched first.

How prepend and extend work

Even though include is the most common way of mixing in modules into a class, Ruby provides two other ways to achieve that but with some differences.

prepend

If you prepend a module to a class, the object looks in that module first, before it looks in the class. it basically inserts the module at the beginning of the ancestors chain.

You can see the difference between include and prepend reflected when calling ancestors on the Person class, which lists all the classes and modules where an instance of the class will search for methods.

module LookHereFirst; end
module LookHereSecond; end

class Person
  prepend LookHereFirst
  include LookHereSecond
end

Person.ancestors

# => [LookHereFirst, Person, LookHereSecond, Object, PP::ObjectMixin, Kernel, BasicObject]

You could use prepend when you want methods in a module to take precedence over the versions defined in a given class.

extend

On the other hand, extend is another way of mixing a module into a class. The difference is that the module’s methods will be available as class methods instead of instance methods.

Had we used extend rather than prepend in our example above, the LookHereFirst module would not have been inserted into Person’s ancestors chain. Instead, Ruby inserts the module in the ancestors chain of Person’s singleton class.

Where do singleton methods fit in the method-lookup path?

An object’s singleton methods live in the object singleton class and so an object can call instance methods from its class and from its singleton class. It has both.

To solve a message into a method, an object looks in all the instance methods defined in these two classes, along with methods available through ancestral classes or through any modules that have been mixed in or prepended to any of these classes.

Let’s prepend and include two modules in an object’s singleton class and then update our diagram to see singleton classes taken into account in the method-lookup path.

The class << object notation is a common way of opening an object’s singleton class.

module M
  def hello
    puts "Hello from module M"
  end
end

module X
  def hello
    puts "Hello from module X in object's singleton class"
  end
end

module N; end
module Y; end

class C; end

class D < C
  prepend M
  include N
end

object = D.new

class << object
  prepend X
  include Y
end

object.hello

# Hello from module X in object's singleton class
# => nil

In its search for the method hello, object looks first for any module prepended to its singleton class; then it looks in the singleton class itself. It then looks in any modules that the singleton class has included. Finally, the search proceeds up to the object’s original class, and so forth.

Class methods are singleton methods

Class methods are singleton methods defined on objects of class Class. Normally, when you define a singleton method on an object, no other object can serve as the receiver in a call to that method. But, methods defined as singleton methods of a class object can also be called on subclasses of that class.

The diagram above shows the relationship among classes and their singleton classes.

In summary, now we better understand how an object looks for a method when resolving a message.

I really hope you find this article useful and thank you for taking the time.