In Part 5 we update our trait to work with Derive based CLIs and discuss the tradeoffs in doing so.

Previously On...

First a quick re-cap on how we used a trait in the Build method so we can compare.

Builder Trait Revisited

In the Builder method we defined a trait that enforced updating a context struct, performing some action with only that context struct, and then calling the next subcommand, if any.

A reminder about what our trait looked like:

pub trait Cmd {
    fn update_ctx(&self, _args: &clap::ArgMatches, _ctx: &mut Ctx) -> anyhow::Result<()> {
        Ok(())
    }
    fn run(&self, _ctx: &mut Ctx) -> anyhow::Result<()> {
        Ok(())
    }
    fn next_cmd<'a>(
        &self,
        _args: &'a clap::ArgMatches,
    ) -> Option<(Box<dyn Cmd>, &'a clap::ArgMatches)> {
        None
    }
}

We then implemented this trait on Zero Sized Type dummy structs:

struct Bustup;

impl Cmd on Bustup {
    // impl here...
}

We had a helper method implemented on the trait object itself that would do the walking and enforcing of update_ctx->run->next_cmd.

impl dyn Cmd + 'static {
    pub fn walk_exec(&self, args: &clap::ArgMatches, ctx: &mut Ctx) -> anyhow::Result<()> {
        self.update_ctx(args, ctx)?;
        self.run(ctx)?;
        if let Some((c, m)) = self.next_cmd(args) {
            return c.walk_exec(m, ctx);
        }
        Ok(())
    }
}

Finally, we kicked off this process in main by creating a Trait Object out of top level dummy struct. Because we used ZSTs, creating a Box<dyn Cmd> did not actually need to heap allocate anything.

let mut ctx = Ctx::default();
let cmd: Box<dyn Cmd> = Box::new(Bustup);
cmd.walk_exec(&args, &mut ctx)

Back to present day

Now that we're using a Derive based method we have a few issues if we were to try and port that trait directly as is to our current code.

CLI Value Structs

We are no longer using dummy structs and no longer passing around a clap::ArgMatches as the CLI values.

If we tried to use ZST structs and instead of clap::ArgMatches pass in our CLI structs we run into not being able to define the type of our CLI struct since they're all distinct types.

pub trait Cmd {
    fn update_ctx(
        &self,
        _args: /* ... */, // <--- What goes here?
        _ctx: &mut Ctx
    ) -> anyhow::Result<()> { }
}

Since we actually want to go from our CLI struct to the context struct in that method, it seems perfectly reasonable to just use our CLI struct instead of a ZST dummy struct.

Single Source of Truth in run

Deciding against a ZST dummy struct also has the consequence of now we have access to our CLI struct and the context struct during run which can break our "single source of truth rule."

There is no good answer this issue, and just like in Builder method we "just live with" the possibility of "stringly-typed" bugs or other oddities of the ArgMatches API; this is something we can live with.

For starters, we take self by shared reference (&self) which keeps us from being able to easily mutate anything and encourages us to use the Ctx struct if we needd to mutate a field such as for normalization or validation.

Additionally, I've just lived with allowing the CLI struct to be the source of truth for any values that meet all of the following rules:

• No normalization is required for this CLI value (e.g. no need to deconflict or check multiple CLI value fields to determine what the user "really wanted")
• This CLI value has no complex environment variable equivalents (clap can handle basic environment variables which is the reason for for "complex" qualifier)
• The CLI value has no configuration file equivalents
• THe CLI argument is not global or shared between other commands

If all of these rules hold, I allow myself to use the CLI struct's values, otherwise use the Context struct.

In practice this rarely an issue.

Using Box<dyn Cmd> will now allocate...a lot

Because we got rid of ZST dummy structs and instead decided to use the CLI value structs, that means creating a Box<dyn Cmd> out of them will allocate. These structs can also end up being quite large depending on the number of CLI arguments your program contains.

Luckily, all is not lost. It turns out we can just as easily use a &dyn Cmd as well since our CLI struct is created at program startup and kept around until after the end of the final run command.

This has the slight downside that you must keep the CLI struct around in memory, but I have yet to find a program where that is a problem as even though I said these structs can be quite large, it's still typically in well below a page size (4k) even for enormous CLIs.

NOTE
See [Appendix A][appendix_a] for a variation on this trait that I've used in the past where I wanted to be able to drop the CLI structs but allow the program to continue to run.

Switching from Box<dyn Cmd> to a &dyn Cmd is trivial in our case:

// src/cli.rs
pub trait Cmd {
    fn update_ctx(&self, _ctx: &mut Ctx) -> anyhow::Result<()> {
        Ok(())
    }
    fn run(&self, _ctx: &mut Ctx) -> anyhow::Result<()> {
        Ok(())
    }
    //                          👇 new
    fn next_cmd(&self) -> Option<&dyn Cmd> {
        None
    }
}

Our impl signature for Cmd changes slightly:

// src/cli.rs
impl<'a> dyn Cmd + 'a { /* .. */ }

And finally our main function changes ever so slightly:

// src/main.rs
fn main() -> Result<()> {
    let args = Bustup::parse();

    let mut ctx = Ctx::default();
    // 👇 new
    let cmd: &dyn Cmd = &args;
    cmd.walk_exec(&mut ctx)
}

Context

Alright, so we've adjusted our trait objects and our trait, but what about our Ctx? Since we are allowing ourselves to use the CLI structs as a partial context only for fields that are trivial, that leaves us with only the more complex, or global values that we need to move into our Ctx. For bustup that happens to only be the toolchain field used globally by all bustup target ....

// src/context.rs
#[derive(Default)]
pub struct Ctx {
    pub target_toolchain: Option<String>,
}

Our First Hard Decision

What about bustup update? It takes a [toolchain] argument, but it meets all the rules for us to just use the CLI struct instead of the context, right? Should we have just named that context field a more general toolchain and shared it?

My answer is, no.

Although those two arguments share a name, they may in the future not share anything else. I prefer to qualify fields with their path, or use child contexts.

Child Contexts

Just a quick aside, our toy example bustup isn't complex enough to really demo this, but in a real CLI it's not a bad idea to instead of qualifying all Ctx fields with their path, instead to use actual sub-contexts. For example something like:

struct Ctx {
    ctx_target: TargetCtx,
    ctx_update: UpdateCtx,
}

PRO TIP
You an also use things like Lazy initialized fields because due to how CLI command work, you typically only walk down a single command path, e.g. bustup update won't ever require anything out of bustup target .... Of course, there are some minor exceptions depending on what you're doing and how things are structured, but in general this is the case.

Enums and Subcommands

Because of how clap's Derive methods parse the subcommands we get back an enum representing one possible subcommand.

And then when we want to implement Cmd::next_cmd we have to do this tedious dance to match:

// src/cli.rs

/// not rustup
#[derive(Parser)]
pub struct Bustup {
    #[command(subcommand)]
    pub cmd: BustupCmd,
}

#[derive(Clone, Subcommand)]
pub enum BustupCmd {
    Update(update::BustupUpdate),
    Target(target::BustupTarget),
}

impl Cmd for Bustup {
    fn next_cmd(&self) -> Option<&dyn Cmd> {
        match self.cmd {
            BustupCmd::Update(cmd) => Some(cmd),
            BustupCmd::Target(cmd) => Some(cmd),
        }
    }
}

While this works, it's tedious to update all the various levels we could have subcommands and also must be updated any time we add or remove a subcommand!

If you don't mind taking on another dependency it turns out we can just implement Cmd directly on our enum in a low drama way!

We'll use the enum_delegate crate to reduce some boiler plate for us:

$ cargo add enum_delegate

Now we change our code slightly to register our trait, and utilize it on our BustupCmd enum:

// src/cli.rs

// 👇 new
#[enum_delegate::register]
pub trait Cmd { /* .. unchanged */ }

// 👇 new
#[enum_delegate::implement(Cmd)]
#[derive(Clone, Subcommand)]
pub enum BustupCmd {
    Update(update::BustupUpdate),
    Target(target::BustupTarget),
}

What does that buy us? Well all of the variants of BustupCmd implement Cmd so we actually just want to delegate directly to them.

Why that matters is when we call <Bustup as Cmd>::next_cmd what we really want is to call the that method on our inner value of whatever variant BustupCmd happens to currently have.

Well now that we have some boiler plate free method do that delegation, we just have to return the enum value itself!

impl Cmd for Bustup {
    // 👇 new
    fn next_cmd(&self) -> Option<&dyn Cmd> {
        Some(&self.cmd)
    }
}

Yes, this will call Cmd::update_ctx and Cmd::run on the enum itself as well, but since we have default implementation that do nothing it doesn't actually matter.

The only thing we have to do is write those three lines for each CLI struct that contains subcommands. No more changes even when we add and remove subcommands!

NOTE
This IMO is a big improvement over the builder method

The Rest of the Owl

Back to code-dump time! We have all the bits we need to implement our remaining commands and see how it all fits together.

Starting with bustup update:

// src/cli/cmds/update.rs
use crate::{cli::Cmd, context::Ctx};

// All else unchanged...

impl Cmd for BustupUpdate {
    fn run(&self, _ctx: &mut Ctx) -> anyhow::Result<()> {
        println!(
            "updating toolchain {}{}",
            self.toolchain,
            if self.force { " (forced)" } else { "" }
        );
        Ok(())
    }
}

// src/cli/cmds/target.rs
use crate::{cli::Cmd, context::Ctx};

// All else unchanged...

impl Cmd for BustupTarget {
    fn update_ctx(&self, ctx: &mut Ctx) -> anyhow::Result<()> {
        ctx.target_toolchain = Some(self.toolchain.clone());
        Ok(())
    }
    fn next_cmd(&self) -> Option<&dyn Cmd> {
        Some(&self.cmd)
    }
}

// src/cli/cmds/target/add.rs
use crate::{cli::Cmd, context::Ctx};

// All else unchanged...

impl Cmd for BustupTargetAdd {
    fn run(&self, ctx: &mut Ctx) -> anyhow::Result<()> {
        println!(
            "Adding the {} target to the {} toolchain",
            self.target,
            ctx.target_toolchain.as_ref().unwrap(),
        );
        Ok(())
    }
}

// src/cli/cmds/target/list.rs
use crate::{cli::Cmd, context::Ctx};

// All else unchanged...

impl Cmd for BustupTargetList {
    fn run(&self, ctx: &mut Ctx) -> anyhow::Result<()> {
        println!(
            "Listing {} targets for the {} toolchain",
            if self.installed { "installed" } else { "all" },
            ctx.target_toolchain.as_ref().unwrap(),
        );
        Ok(())
    }
}

// src/cli/cmds/target/remove.rs
use crate::{cli::Cmd, context::Ctx};

// All else unchanged...

impl Cmd for BustupTargetRemove {
    fn run(&self, ctx: &mut Ctx) -> anyhow::Result<()> {
        println!(
            "Removing the {} target from the {} toolchain",
            self.target,
            ctx.target_toolchain.as_ref().unwrap(),
        );
        Ok(())
    }
}

And that's it!

The full code can be found in the repository under the derive branch.

Summary

By structuring our code in such a way we can have clean delineations between "setup" and "action" code allowing us to split up code to run at the appropriate point of program execution logically.

It also helps us to enforce a little bit of rigor in appropriately using our context structs and keeping the "run" code single purpose.

There will be times when you want to manually "run" one of the commands from within code, and with this type of setup it should be mostly trivial as you only need to ensure the context struct is appropriately populated and then call Cmd::run.

NOTE
It's possible to use an associated type for an "output" of the Cmd::run method if you prefer, for these manual run scenarios. However I've found that it's easier to maintain by just setting a context field if run methods need to pass data between them which is actually quite rare.

Appendix A: Short Lived CLI Structs

If for some reason we do not want our CLI structs to remain in memory for the duration of the program such as either they take up significant memory or perhaps there is sensitive information that must be cleaned up, we can alter our Cmd trait slightly to allow dropping.

In this variation I think of the Cmd trait as an initializer, and thus I either rename run -> runner or remove it altogether.

Addressing these options in reverse order...

Removing run

In these scenarios your "real" main/run will just take the final Ctx as it's only argument. This option can get tricky though if you have multiple terminal methods that are distinct, e.g. git clone versus git push. Passing a Ctx to some final run method would probably need to match on some field to figure out what functionality it really needs to execute. Hence this method I typically only use in single purpose daemons where there is esseentially always a single well defined "running" state.

The code would look something like:

pub trait Cmd {
    fn update_ctx(&self, _ctx: &mut Ctx) -> anyhow::Result<()> {
        Ok(())
    }
    fn next_cmd(&self) -> Option<&dyn Cmd> {
        None
    }
}

fn main() -> anyhow::Result<()> {
    let args = Bustup::parse();

    let mut ctx = Ctx::default();
    let cmd: &dyn Cmd = &args;
    cmd.walk_exec(&mut ctx)?;

    // 👇 new
    drop(args);

    // 👇 new
    run(ctx)
}

// 👇 new
fn run(ctx: &mut Ctx) -> Result<()> { /* .. */ }

Renaming run to runner

In this variation run is more of an object initializer that returns something that can be run.

This means I typically make another trait to represent the terminal Run action that should be performed.

Depending on the use case you can also just not implement runner in any of the commaneds except the terminal one.

// 👇 new
pub trait Runnable {
    fn run(&self, _ctx: &mut Ctx) -> Result<()>;
}

pub trait Cmd {
    fn update_ctx(&self, _ctx: &mut Ctx) -> anyhow::Result<()> {
        Ok(())
    }
    // 👇 renamed                                👇 new
    fn runner(&self, _ctx: &mut Ctx) -> Option<Box<dyn Runable>> {
        None
    }
    fn next_cmd( &self,) -> Option<&dyn Cmd> {
        None
    }
}

impl<'a> dyn Cmd + 'a {
    pub fn walk_exec(&self, ctx: &mut Ctx) -> anyhow::Result<Option<Box<dyn Runnable>> {
        self.update_ctx(args, ctx)?;
        // 👇 new (return if we have something to run)
        if let Some(run) = self.runnere(ctx)? {
            return Ok(Some(run));
        }
        if let Some((c, m)) = self.next_cmd(args) {
            return c.walk_exec(m, ctx);
        }
        Ok(())
    }
}

fn main() -> anyhow::Result<()> {
    let args = Bustup::parse();

    let mut ctx = Ctx::default();
    let cmd: &dyn Cmd = &args;
    let runner = cmd.walk_exec(&mut ctx)?;

    // 👇 new
    drop(args);

    // 👇 new
    runner.run(ctx)
}