Philosophy will clip an Angel's wings,
Conquer all mysteries by rule and line,
Empty the haunted air, and gnomed mine–
Unweave a rainbow, as it erewhile made

— Lamia (John Keats)

I'm an academic at heart. I don't think that's a bad thing for a software engineer, but it gets kind of lonely.

I notice it when phone screening. As an interviewer, I might ask something about object-oriented design. "Can you tell me how inheritance works?" Typically, I'll hear answers about code reuse, subclasses delegating to superclasses, quirks of specific programming languages, composition over inheritance, etc.

These answers aren't wrong. But I die a little bit inside when it's all I hear. The academic part of me yearns for more depth. In my experience, most programmers can describe what inheritance does, but not what it really is.

Nineteenth-century poet John Keats purportedly quipped that scientist Issac Newton "destroyed the poetry of the rainbow by reducing it to a prism". And sure, learning how a magic trick works might rob you of a certain joy. But I think the broader programming community would do well not to treat language constructs as magic tricks—as some syntactic incantation you just learn by rote. Not only can there be a joy in knowing, there are practical benefits to digging deeper. You'll take the lessons learned with you on all your future programming endeavors.

So instead of waiting to hear it from an interviewee like some secret academic handshake, I want to educate. Let's destroy a rainbow together.

Classes

You can't take two steps in Programming Town without tripping over object orientation: C++, C#, Java, Kotlin, Perl, PHP, Python, Ruby, Scala, Swift, ... The syntax, nomenclature, and other gory details vary, but I'll assume you're familiar with the ideas in general. The gist being: you define your own classes of objects (the nouns of your program) that then contain constructors, variables, methods, etc. An individual object constructed by the class is called an instance, and the instance's methods are what do the main work of your program.

While this post isn't really specific to any language, Ruby is a quintessential example of an object-oriented language, so I'll go ahead and use it for the code throughout. Let's define a simple class.

class Rainbow
  attr_reader :colors

  def initialize(colors)
    @colors = colors
  end
end

The Rainbow class has an initializer that takes in an array of colors and saves them in an instance variable. That variable is accessible by a corresponding getter method.

To represent the individual colors in a rainbow, we define yet another class.

class Color
  attr_reader :alpha

  def transparent?
    alpha == 0.0
  end

  def translucent?
    0.0 < alpha && alpha < 1.0
  end

  def opaque?
    alpha == 1.0
  end
end

To make things interesting, we define the Color class with an alpha channel—a percentage used to represent the opacity of a pixel when we render the color. Not only do we have a getter method for this alpha, we define several methods implementing logic involving its value.

So far, so good. But we can't really construct a meaningful color yet. The problem is that there are several different ways to represent colors in a computer. That's where we'll use inheritance.

Inheritance

The term "inheritance" is meant to evoke the concept of genetics. When children inherit traits from their parents, the parents don't lose those traits. Children may also have additional traits beyond the ones they've inherited.

So, too, can we propagate traits between classes in a program. We define subclasses that inherit from superclasses. Inherit what, though? Generally, the methods and variables. Features like access modifiers (e.g., private in Ruby) change which exact things get inherited, but the details aren't relevant to this post.

Defining a subclass is largely the same as defining a standard class.

class RGB < Color
  attr_reader :red
  attr_reader :green
  attr_reader :blue

  def initialize(red, green, blue, alpha = 1.0)
    @red = red
    @green = green
    @blue = blue
    @alpha = alpha
  end
end

The RGB class is a subclass of Color (and Color is a superclass of RGB). It represents a point in the RGB color model: three values between 0 and 255 for the redness, greenness, and blueness of a pixel. Combined, these 3 primary colors add together to form a secondary color, ranging from black (0, 0, 0) to white (255, 255, 255).

Using RGB, we can finally instantiate meaningful colors.

red = RGB.new(255, 0, 0)
orange = RGB.new(255, 165, 0)
yellow = RGB.new(255, 255, 0)
green = RGB.new(0, 255, 0)
blue = RGB.new(0, 0, 255)
indigo = RGB.new(75, 0, 130)
violet = RGB.new(238, 130, 238)

Due to inheritance, every instance of RGB responds to methods defined by Color. This is how inheritance promotes code reuse: basically by "copying" code (if only virtually) so you don't have to.

dimmed_red = RGB.new(255, 0, 0, 0.5)
dimmed_red.transparent? #=> false
dimmed_red.translucent? #=> true
dimmed_red.opaque? #=> false

We can keep defining more subclasses, and even subclasses of those subclasses.

class Cylindrical < Color
  attr_reader :hue
  attr_reader :saturation
  attr_reader :component

  def initialize(hue, saturation, component, alpha = 1.0)
    @hue = hue
    @saturation = saturation
    @component = component
    @alpha = alpha
  end
end

class HSL < Cylindrical
  alias lightness component
end

class HSV < Cylindrical
  alias value component
end

The Cylindrical class is another subclass of Color. It is a generalized representation of a point in a cylindrical-coordinate color model. Such a color has three pieces: a hue represented as an angle between 0-360°, a saturation between 0 and 1, and a third component whose name & possible values vary by the specific model.

Some examples of such models are given by the Cylindrical subclasses HSL (hue, saturation, lightness) and HSV (hue, saturation, value). They inherit the getters for hue and saturation, as well as the getter for the generic third component. But component isn't very descriptive, so each subclass aliases it, creating a getter with a more specific name.

We can represent a color like forest green using equivalent instances of each class.

rgb = RGB.new(34, 139, 34)
hsl = HSL.new(120, 0.61, 0.34)
hsv = HSV.new(120, 0.76, 0.55)

Even more color models exist, but digging into all of them isn't the sort of rainbow wrecking I had in mind. 😉

Classes unwoven

My point is that, as programmers, we know how to define classes mechanistically in our language of choice. In fact, there's quite a lot we know about how to use them: writing initializers, instantiating objects, making getter methods over instance variables, defining methods that use those values. You probably know even more than what I'm summarizing here. The Rainbow class and all the different Color classes are pretty humdrum in most languages.

But if we know classes merely by how we use them, then a class is whatever our language makes of it—all the syntax, semantics, patterns, and boilerplate. In Python, you use explicit selfs. In Java, you have to be mindful about the difference between int and Integer. In C++, initialization is bonkers. In Kotlin, you need to declare a class open to allow subclasses. In Go, methods are declared separately from structs, which only have a limited form of inheritance via embedding. And so on.

Really, I want to highlight the difference between the imperative and the declarative—doing vs being. Programming languages implement classes as a feature that does something for you in some specific way. But they only bother because of what a class is in the abstract, which doesn't change between languages. So what is a class, really?

My answer may seem underwhelming: a class can be understood as a set of all its possible instances.

For illustration, the RGB class contains not just the ROYGBIV instances we created before, but also every other valid instance. Using just the red/blue/green components, that's 256^3 = 16,777,216 possible combinations. Along with the alpha channel, which is a real number between 0 and 1, there is an uncountably infinite number of elements in this set (although computers can only represent a finite range of floating point numbers in practice).

The exciting part of pulling on this thread is that it leads us to the very foundations of mathematics. Virtually all mathematical theorems can be formulated as theorems of set theory. Thanks to over a century of work by mathematicians, we know a wide variety of abstract properties about sets. Things that are true not because of a specific implementation, but because they must be true.

Inheritance unwoven

One such truth: if classes are sets, then subclasses are subsets. One set is a subset of another if every element of the first is also an element of the second. In mathematical notation, we write $x \in S$ if element $x$ is a member of set $S$ and we write $S \subseteq T$ if set $S$ is a subset of set $T$ . So $S \subseteq T$ if for every $x \in S$ it's the case that $x \in T$ as well.

When an object-oriented language says "everything is an object", one thing they often mean is that every class inherits from some base Object superclass. Considering all the classes we've defined so far, we can draw the Venn diagram showing how these sets nest.

Elements of the Object set include the elements of the Rainbow and Color sets. Inside of Color are all its possible instances; some of those instances are also in the RGB and Cylindrical sets. Inside Cylindrical are HSL and HSV.

In mathematical notation:

Now consider an instance of the HSL class for the color pink.

pink = HSL.new(350, 1.0, 0.88)

We can say that pink is in the HSL set. By the definition of subsets, this also means the following.

Given these set memberships, and the fact that classes are sets of instances, this means pink is an instance of HSL, Cylindrical, and Color simultaneously.

Methods

These interactions become important when we consider what methods mean through the lens of subsets. Say we add a method to the RGB class that returns the corresponding complementary color.

class RGB < Color
  def complement
    self.class.new(255 - red, 255 - green, 255 - blue, alpha)
  end
end

We think of this method as taking no arguments. After all, we pass the message to an instance of RGB with no parameters.

red = RGB.new(255, 0, 0)
cyan = red.complement # RGB 0, 255, 255

If we try to call this method on some other class that does not define it, we get an error.

red = HSL.new(0, 1.0, 0.5)
red.complement #=> NoMethodError

Imagine for a moment that the language didn't have this concept of methods, though: just top-level functions. The spelling might be different, but you could achieve the same effect. In our example, if an instance is in the RGB class, we can use the logic as defined; otherwise raise an exception.

def complement(o)
  case o.class
  when RGB
    o.class.new(255 - o.red, 255 - o.green, 255 - o.blue, o.alpha)
  else
    raise NoMethodError
  end
end

A method is then a function whose first argument is tacitly an instance of the class on which it's defined. This is made more evident in languages like Python, where methods are always defined with an explicit first argument named self.

But conceptually, using just one function gets more complicated. Methods with the same name might be defined for several different classes. So if we only have this one function, it needs to have a branch for each class on which it's defined.

Say we added an equivalent method for Cylindrical.

class Cylindrical < Color
  def complement
    self.class.new((hue + 180) % 360, saturation, component, alpha)
  end
end

The top-level function would need an extra clause for the Cylindrical case.

def complement(o)
  case o.class
  when RGB
    o.class.new(255 - o.red, 255 - o.green, 255 - o.blue, o.alpha)
  when Cylindrical
    o.class.new((o.hue + 180) % 360, o.saturation, o.component, o.alpha)
  else
    raise NoMethodError
  end
end

But this implementation still incorrect, thanks to inheritance. In the above code, we're checking set equality. As was pointed out in the previous section, an instance can be a member of multiple sets at once, even if the sets aren't equal. For example, even though an instance of HSL is also an instance of Cylindrical, $\texttt{HSL} \ne \texttt{Cylindrical}$ . Yet the actual method is equally valid to call on subclasses of Cylindrical.

red = HSL.new(0, 1.0, 0.5)
cyan = red.complement # HSL 180, 1.0, 0.5

green = HSV.new(120, 1.0, 0.50)
purple = green.complement # HSV 300, 1.0, 0.5

We know classes are sets. So instead of checking if the object's class is equal to the definer's class, what if we perform a subset check, $\subseteq$ ? In Ruby, you can actually compare two classes this way using the <= operator.

def complement(o)
  case
  when o.class <= RGB
    o.class.new(255 - o.red, 255 - o.green, 255 - o.blue, o.alpha)
  when o.class <= Cylindrical
    o.class.new((o.hue + 180) % 360, o.saturation, o.component, o.alpha)
  else
    raise NoMethodError
  end
end

Finally, this is a correct definition for our complementary color method. Languages don't necessarily implement methods this way, but that doesn't invalidate the conceptual understanding.

Method overriding

Things get more complicated when we throw method overriding into the mix. This allows a subclass to redefine a method of their parent class. The subclass can usually delegate to the original superclass method with some form of super keyword, but this feature complicates our discussion too much for the scope of this post. I encourage you to destroy that rainbow for yourself. 😉

One common (though admittedly not particularly interesting) pattern in Ruby, which lacks explicit abstract classes, is to define a method that raises NotImplementedError on the superclass. Subclasses are expected to override the method, because otherwise they'll inherit the error-throwing version. This is desirable simply for the fact that NotImplementedError is more informative than NoMethodError.

For example, we might expect to be able to convert cylindrical-coordinate colors into RGB points. However, the implementation details vary based on the specific cylindrical model.

class Cylindrical
  def to_rgb
    raise NotImplementedError
  end
end

class HSL < Cylindrical
  def to_rgb
    puts '(HSL to RGB algorithm)'
  end
end

class HSV < Cylindrical
  def to_rgb
    puts '(HSV to RGB algorithm)'
  end
end

If we subclass Cylindrical without overriding the method, we're tipped off to the fact that we didn't implement something we should have.

class HSI < Cylindrical
  alias intensity component
end

magenta = HSI.new(300, 1.0, 0.67)
magenta.to_rgb #=> NotImplementedError

Once again, for the sake of illustration, let's think about how we would define this method as a function that compares subsets. This isn't how languages necessarily implement it, but it helps us understand how we might get the logic wrong.

def to_rgb(o)
  case
  when o.class <= Cylindrical
    raise NotImplementedError
  when o.class <= HSL
    puts '(HSL to RGB algorithm)'
  when o.class <= HSV
    puts '(HSV to RGB algorithm)'
  else
    raise NoMethodError
  end
end

The issue is that our big conditional statement is sensitive to the order of the branches. In the incorrect implementation above, the Cylindrical subset check is done first. So say we pass an HSL instance into this top-level function. Since $\texttt{HSL} \subseteq \texttt{Cylindrical}$ , we'll immediately execute the branch that raises the NotImplementedError.

coral = HSL.new(5, 0.90, 0.72)
to_rgb(coral) #=> NotImplementedError

So we need to order the branches correctly. How do we know we can even find such an ordering? Because of set theory!

Firstly, a partial order of a given set is a relationship between any two of its elements such that the following properties hold.

• Reflexivity: every element is related to itself.
• Antisymmetry: any two distinct elements related to each other in one direction cannot be related in the other direction. Said another way, the only way two elements can be related in both directions is if they're actually the same element.
• Transitivity: if one element is related to a second element and the second is related to a third, then the first is related to the third as well.

For example, the set of integers is partially ordered by the "less than or equal to" relationship.

• Every integer $x$ is less than or equal to itself: $x \le x$ .
• If $x \le y$ and $y \le x$ , then $x = y$ .
• If $x \le y$ and $y \le z$ , then $x \le z$ .

So, too, is the set of classes (in Ruby, this would be the Class class) partially ordered by the "is a subset of" relationship, $\subseteq$ .

• Every set is a subset of itself: $A \subseteq A$ .
• If $A \subseteq B$ and $B \subseteq A$ , then $A = B$ .
• If $A \subseteq B$ and $B \subseteq C$ , then $A \subseteq C$ .

But a key difference between $\le$ and $\subseteq$ is that "less than or equal to" is a total order on its corresponding set (i.e., integers). This means the relationship satisfies one additional property.

• Connexity: any two elements must be related in some direction.

Given any two integers $x$ and $y$ , either $x \le y$ or $y \le x$ . That is, integers are always comparable.

However, the subset relationship is not a total order. Although some sets are subsets of others, there are disjoint sets with nothing in common. We can't say HSL is a subset of HSV or vice versa; RGB is not a subclass of Cylindrical, nor is Cylindrical a subclass of RGB. So classes aren't always comparable.

This matters because we'd like to order our conditional branches correctly. We must be able to sort classes such that the "smallest", most specific subset is first—so that HSL & HSV come before Cylindrical. But if $\subseteq$ is not a total order, how can we sort classes relative to each other? What order do HSL & HSV go in, since they're not comparable?

The answer is not to use a traditional comparison sorting algorithm that CS majors learn so much about in school. Rather, we can use topological sorting. Theory tells us that for any partial order there exists at least one topological ordering. Incomparable elements may appear in any order relative to each other, as long as they come before/after comparable elements as appropriate.

Any such ordering is sufficient for our current example. One possible topological ordering puts HSL before HSV.

def to_rgb(o)
  case
  when o.class <= HSL
    puts '(HSL to RGB algorithm)'
  when o.class <= HSV
    puts '(HSV to RGB algorithm)'
  when o.class <= Cylindrical
    raise NotImplementedError
  else
    raise NoMethodError
  end
end

Just as valid would be to put HSV before HSL. As long as they both come before their superset Cylindrical, the topological ordering keeps us from executing the wrong logic.

def to_rgb(o)
  case
  when o.class <= HSV
    puts '(HSV to RGB algorithm)'
  when o.class <= HSL
    puts '(HSL to RGB algorithm)'
  when o.class <= Cylindrical
    raise NotImplementedError
  else
    raise NoMethodError
  end
end

This might seem trivial. Our classes all have one immediate superset, so we can readily see this "straight line" topological order from HSV to Cylindrical to Color to Object. Never fear: there's still more rainbow left to untangle.

Multiple inheritance

Where the topological order matters more is in when a subclass can have several superclasses, as is the case with multiple inheritance.

Languages don't seem to advertise their multiple inheritance loudly. If you ask me, it's a case of no true Scotsman. Many languages have some form of multiple inheritance, they just won't call it that. They implement different limitations & algorithms to handle some of the ambiguities that can arise, making their flavor of multiple inheritance different from "pure" multiple inheritance—whatever that means. As a result, trying to understand the concept in terms of any one language will be difficult: Ruby's approach will lead you one way while Python's will lead you another. Once again, it serves us to think about the topic in the abstract (and not too pedantically).

In terms of sets, multiple inheritance declares that a class is a subset of the union of multiple superclasses. The union of sets $S$ and $T$ , denoted $S \cup T$ , is a set such that if $x \in S$ or $x \in T$ , then $x \in S \cup T$ .

In Ruby terms, you can't inherit from multiple classes. But you can mix-in multiple modules. In the language, modules differ from classes in that they don't have instances. That is, you can't call M.new for a module M. However, the two are still very much related. In fact, Class is a subclass of Module in Ruby. Realizing this, it's not a stretch to think that modules are still sets. If you can conceptualize classes as sets of instances, a module might be a set of objects that respond to certain methods. Despite the technical differences, the conceptual effect is the same: the child acquires traits from multiple parents.

So you want a convoluted example? You've got it! We'll first define modules how we normally would in Ruby, then think again about how methods could theoretically be implemented as top-level functions.

Let's say we have some shared functionality for objects that are suitable subjects of poetry. According to Keats, this might include an angel's wings, gnomed mines, and of course rainbows. For us to write a poem about any given object, we might need to compute properties about it, like words that rhyme with the object's name or the source of its artistic beauty.

module Poetic
  def rhymes
    puts '(Poetic rhymes algorithm)'
  end

  def beauty
    puts '(Poetic beauty algorithm)'
  end
end

While angels, gnomes, and rainbows aren't subclasses of each other, we can factor out their shared poetic functionality.

Compare this to cold, calculating science. In science, we care about objects that we can measure. As Keats laments, all the object's mysteries will be conquered by rule and line. But to a scientist, the beauty is in knowing.

module Scientific
  def measurements
    puts '(Scientific measurements algorithm)'
  end

  def beauty
    puts '(Scientific beauty algorithm)'
  end
end

Any number of objects might have scientific functionality, but we care primarily about rainbows. Moreover, a rainbow is both a poetic and a scientific phenomenon.

class Rainbow
  include Poetic
  include Scientific
end

The spelling might be different from subclassing, but this declares that Rainbow is a subset of the union of Poetic and Scientific.

In mathematical notation, $\texttt{Rainbow} \subseteq \texttt{Poetic} \cup \texttt{Scientific}$ . In Ruby, you can even compare the sets the same way as before.

Rainbow <= Poetic #=> true
Rainbow <= Scientific #=> true

Defining the functional logic of the unique methods is simple.

def rhymes(o)
  case
  when o.class <= Poetic
    puts '(Poetic rhymes algorithm)'
  else
    raise NoMethodError
  end
end

def measurements(o)
  case
  when o.class <= Scientific
    puts '(Scientific measurements algorithm)'
  else
    raise NoMethodError
  end
end

However, what do we do about the beauty function, whose method is defined for both Scientific and Poetic? Even though a topological sort would put Rainbow before either of these modules, Scientific and Poetic themselves are incomparable. So the behavior is dependent on the order.

def beauty(o)
  case
  when o.class <= Poetic
    puts '(Poetic beauty algorithm)'
  when o.class <= Scientific
    puts '(Scientific beauty algorithm)'
  else
    raise NoMethodError
  end
end

rainbow = Rainbow.new([red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet])
beauty(rainbow) #=> (Poetic beauty algorithm)

With Poetic before Scientific, the poetic algorithm is used on the Rainbow instance.

def beauty(o)
  case
  when o.class <= Scientific
    puts '(Scientific beauty algorithm)'
  when o.class <= Poetic
    puts '(Poetic beauty algorithm)'
  else
    raise NoMethodError
  end
end

rainbow = Rainbow.new([red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet])
beauty(rainbow) #=> (Scientific beauty algorithm)

With Scientific before Poetic, the scientific algorithm is used on the Rainbow instance.

In a way, our topological sort has failed us: either of the above could be valid. This is where language implementations resolve the ambiguity in different ways—sometimes even as full-fledged features.

• In Ruby, classes may mix in multiple modules. include inserts the module directly after the current class in the topological order, so a more recent include has higher precedence than a less recent one. prepend inserts a module directly before the current class in the topological order, which allows for some interesting patterns.
• In Common Lisp (CLOS), classes may have multiple parents. Generic functions sort applicable methods with tie-breakers based on the declaration order. This list can be applied in standard or customized ways.
• In Scala, classes may mix in multiple traits. The spec defines a standard class linearization that winds up working similarly to Ruby's, where the order of declarations matters.
• In Python, classes may inherit from any number of parent classes. The method resolution order (MRO) is given by the C3 linearization algorithm.
• In Factor, ambiguities in the class linearization are resolved through a couple different tie-breaking rules based on metaclasses & lexicographic order.
• And so on.

There's no right answer. But knowing the abstract problem helps you to better understand the algorithms used by your favorite language.

Types

I'd be remiss not to mention type theory, since we're used to dealing with various notions of types in programming languages.

If you dig into set theory and the foundations of mathematics, you'll find various equivalent formalisms. While there is ostensibly a difference between a subclass and a subtype, in practice I think it's largely pedantic. At any rate, the theories of sets and types are equivalent. That being the case, it's still useful for programmers to think of a classes as sets, sets as types, and thus classes as types.

For example, a practical concept that falls out of this kind of thinking is the difference between has-a and is-a relationships. Intuitively, a rainbow is not a type of color, but RGB is. However, a rainbow contains many colors. Thus, Rainbow should use a has-a (or really, has-many) relationship to Color by keeping objects in instance variables, whereas RGB should use an is-a relationship by subclassing Color. But you don't even need to know the buzzwords if you can think critically about the types (and therefore classes) involved in your program. Doing so means you're actively thinking about how to write good code. And that's a skill transferable to any language, whatever the subclassing (or subtyping) mechanisms might be.

This also means that despite whatever misconceptions people may have, even a dynamic language like Ruby has types. After all, it has classes. Just because one language doesn't use the same type-checking algorithms as another, it doesn't mean that types cease to exist. They're there abstractly even if your language doesn't call them out by name. As such, it still behooves you to think about types in a general sense, whether you're writing dynamically-typed PHP or statically-typed Java.

Conversely, even functional languages that we don't normally think of as object-oriented have the same theoretical underpinnings. Instead of full-blown classes you might see a construct like Elixir's defstruct, which defines a type with specific fields but no methods. Or there may be very sophisticated ways of defining custom types, as in Haskell's algebraic data types. Such types might include something like Racket's anonymous unions, allowing us to formulate multiple inheritance in terms of type constraints. And as we've seen, rather than attach methods to specific classes, you could define functions that dispatch based on the type of their first argument. But why stop there? A system like CLOS can use multiple dispatch to select the most specific function to apply to the combination of parameters. Of course, you could also be OCaml and fuse object orientation with the type system & syntax of the functional language ML.

Programming languages vary widely, but the concepts can still be understood in general terms. If you understand the general, then learning any specific language—and writing good code in it—becomes that much easier.

Rainbows unwoven

So there it is. Classes & inheritance analyzed to death; the underlying theory exposed. Armed with this knowledge, what have you lost? If you ask me, not the beauty, but the preconceptions.

• Object orientation isn't at odds with functional programming. Either can be understood (at least at a high level) in terms of the other.
• Mixins, multiple inheritance, and union types are more similar than they are different.
• Even among object-oriented languages, one system isn't fundamentally different from another. They're all different flavors of set theory.

A major benefit of abstraction is unifying ideas into an elegant whole that can be kept in your head. If you understand that classes are sets, and you already know how sets behave, you're capable of grokking a wide variety of object-oriented systems. Language becomes an implementation detail.

But despite what you might automatically think that means, implementation does matter. Each object system is beautiful in some way. Taking advantage of your language's strengths makes your job easier as a programmer. Playing to these strengths lets you organize your code in beautiful ways. What could be more important?

[W]e want to establish the idea that a computer language is not just a way of getting a computer to perform operations but rather that it is a novel formal medium for expressing ideas about methodology. Thus, programs must be written for people to read, and only incidentally for machines to execute.

— Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs

So go forth and destroy some rainbows. You never know what you might learn. 🌈